Cernunnos: The Gundestrup cauldron and the Pillar of the Boatmen

Curators choose their favourite object: the Gundestrup cauldron 

The British Museum

In Curator Julia Farley’s own words, ‘admitting you have a favourite object is kind of like admitting you have a favourite child’. Nevertheless, she tells us why she loves the Gundestrup cauldron and why it’s so exciting to have this remarkable object from Denmark on display in the UK for the first time.

You can find out more about the Gundestrup cauldron in Julia’s blog post:
https://blog.britishmuseum.org/2015/10/13/who-were-the-celts/

What would your favourite Celtic object be? Book now for the exhibition:
http://www.britishmuseum.org/whats_on/past_exhibitions/2015/celts.aspx?fromShortUrl

Gundestrup cauldron

The Gundestrup cauldron is a richly decorated silver vessel, thought to date from between 200 BC and 300 AD, or more narrowly between 150 BC and 1 BC. This places it within the late La Tène period or early Roman Iron Age. The cauldron is the largest known example of European Iron Age silver work (diameter: 69 cm (27 in); height: 42 cm (17 in)). It was found, dismantled with the other pieces stacked inside the base, in 1891 in a peat bog near the hamlet of Gundestrup in the Aars parish of Himmerland, Denmark (56°49′N 9°33′E). It is now usually on display in the National Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen, with replicas at other museums; in 2015-16 it is in exhibitions in London and then Edinburgh on The Celts.

The cauldron is not complete, and now consists of a rounded cup-shaped bottom making up the lower part of the cauldron, usually called the base plate, above which are five interior plates and seven exterior ones; a missing eighth exterior plate would be needed to encircle the cauldron, and only two sections of a rounded rim at the top of the cauldron survive. The base plate is mostly smooth and undecorated inside and out, apart from a decorated round medallion in the centre of the interior. All the other plates are heavily decorated with repoussé work, hammered from beneath to push out the silver. Other techniques were used to add detail, and there is extensive gilding and some use of inlaid pieces of glass for the eyes of figures. Other pieces of fittings were found. Altogether the weight is just under 9 kilograms.

Despite the fact that the vessel was found in Denmark, it was probably not made there or nearby; it includes elements of Gaulish and Thracian origin in the workmanship, metallurgy, and imagery. The techniques and elements of the style of the panels relate closely to other Thracian silver, while much of the depiction, in particular of the human figures, relates to the Celts, though attempts to relate the scenes closely to Celtic mythology remain controversial. Other aspects of the iconography derive from the Near East.

Hospitality on a large scale was probably an obligation for Celtic elites, and although cauldrons were therefore an important item of prestige metalwork, they are usually much plainer and smaller than this. This is an exceptionally large and elaborate object with no close parallel, except a large fragment from a bronze cauldron also found in Denmark, at Rynkeby; however the exceptional wetland deposits in Scandinavia have produced a number of objects of types that were probably once common but where other examples have not survived. It has been much discussed by scholars, and represents a fascinatingly complex demonstration of the many cross-currents in European art, as well as an unusual degree of narrative for Celtic art, though we are unlikely ever to fully understand its original meanings.



Pillar of the Boatmen

The Pillar of the Boatmen (French Pilier des nautes) is a square-section stone bas-relief with depictions of several deities, both Gaulish and Roman. Dating to the first quarter of the 1st century AD, it originally stood in a temple in the Gallo-Roman civitas of Lutetia (modern Paris, France) and is one of the earliest pieces of representational Gaulish art to carry a written inscription (Hatt 1952). It is displayed in the frigidarium of the Thermes de Cluny.

Nation, geography, and the Cernic culture

The Gundestrup cauldron was basically Gaulish in terms of culture, discovered in Denmark (not a Celto-Gaulish region), and "it includes elements of Gaulish and Thracian (ancient Bulgaria) origin in the workmanship, metallurgy, and imagery." It was also thought to have been constructed in the Balkans. That's all a bit confusing, and it's possible that it was just an item of Gaulish origin which was obtained via Gaulish-Teutonic trade. Cernunnos was apparently the chief deity of the Gauls in Gaul (now France) and Cisalpine Gaul (south of the Alps). However, Cernunnos and other regional western European "horned gods" likely originated with the very ancient proto-European stag or horned god.

One mystery is that the cauldron is estimated to have been constructed at least 250 years after the Gaulish nations were conquered by the Romans. Therefore, who was still making Cernic artistry? I could see where the Gaulish-Cernic culture could have continued for a time under Roman rule, but this was approximately 250 to 350 years after Julius Caesar defeated Vercingetorix in the Battle of Alesia. Could some of the Gauls have then migrated into Teutonic areas and continued their culture in exile? It should also be noted that the torc was of Celto-Gaulish cultural origin before disappearing, and only later became popular again within Viking culture.


The classic Cernunnos icon

Plate A shows an antlered male figure seated in a central position, often identified as Cernunnos. In his right hand, he holds a torc, and with his left hand he grips a horned serpent a little below the head. To the left is a stag with antlers that are very similar to the human/divine figure. Surrounding the scene are other canine, feline, and bovine animals, some but not all facing the human, as well as a human riding a dolphin. Between the antlers of the god is an unknown motif, possibly a plant or a tree.

"Sun of the Alps" symbol present on the Gundestrup calderon

On plate B, the large bust of a torc-wearing female is flanked by two six-spoked wheels, what seem to be two elephants, and two griffins. A feline or hound is underneath the bust.

The Pillar of the Boatmen is much more simple as far as origin; it's Gallo-Roman from the first century CE. The Romans, in usual fashion, mixed and conflated their own deities with those of the conquered region. In this case forming a type of "Gallo-Roman religion." In addition, gods and goddesses of each were symbolically "married" together...

In some cases, Gaulish deity names were used as epithets for Roman deities, as with Lenus Mars or Jupiter Poeninus. In other cases, Roman gods were given Gaulish female partners – for example, Mercury was paired with Rosmerta and Sirona was partnered with Apollo. In at least one case – that of the equine goddess Epona – a native Celtic goddess was also adopted by Romans.

The pillar was no exception, featuring both Roman and Gaulish gods... including Cernunnos wearing a torc around each horn. Click "HERE" for a close look at the image and inscription "Cernunno." One earlier Latin inscription reads "Deo Ceruninco"... meaning "to the God Cerunincos."

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Senobessus: Gaulish Polytheistic Reconstructionism

Gaulish Polytheistic Reconstructionism, or "Senobessus," is a branch of Celtic Polytheistic Reconstructionism. It focuses on specifically pre-Christian Gaulish paganism. I suppose a simpler way to put it is simply "Gaulish neopaganism." This movement, much of it very recent, has forced me to look hard at the Cernic Rite concept.

It has occurred to me that part of the mild friction between the simple naming of Germanic neopaganism is at work in its Gaulish neopaganist parallel as well. Should it be called "Odinism," or "Asatru?" Odin, while basically the chief god, is still just one of the gods and goddesses. Perhaps a non god-specific name for the pantheon would be more appropriate. The name "Asatru" is of Icelandic origin, making it regionally-specific, which has it's drawbacks as well. Naturally you want a name which includes everyone whom you wish to include. The Odinist/Wotanist story extended far from Iceland. A place like Russia is historically very much part of the "historical Wotanist narrative." Needless to say, the choosing of a name is very important.

Before I go any further, a brief description of the movement from PaganSpace.net (actually from the facebook page):

Senobessus: Gaulish Polytheistic Tribalism

Slania!

Welcome to The Gaulish Polytheism Community!

This group is dedicated to Senobessus

Senobessus, or Gaulish Polytheistic Reconstructionism, is a Celtic Reconstructionist faith that focuses on Pre-Roman Gaulish Religion, and its revival into the modern age. Our faith emphasizes orthopraxy or "right actions" over orthodoxy or "right belief", and cultural relevance or influence over "racial purity" or elitism. We are open to all genders and sexual orientations, ethnic backgrounds, and national affiliations.

Also, this description from nertho.eu:

Senobessus "The Old Custom"

I would like to formally introduce the philosophy and tradition of Senobessus, as a modern reconstruction of "The Old Custom" of Gaulish Religion, as it applies not only to modern spirituality, but the continued research and dedication of those who have been and are getting involved in Gaulish Polytheistic Reconstruction.

The following statements are in dedication of the hard work of the noble few in our tradition who continue to honor the Gods of Gaul...

Mission Statement of Senobessus

Senobessus is a Gaulish word that translates into English as “old custom”, and is the name we have given to our humble religion. It represents how our members honor the Gaulish customs within our communities, and the bonds we share not only with our gods, but the unspoken bond we share with each other.

Our religion is less of an organization and more of a tradition we share with each other. Though many have contributed in the past to the dissemination of Senobessus, no one person is responsible for founding it, as it has always been there in some form or another. More importantly, all members within Senobessus are, despite their different roles, essentially equal.

That being said, The Gaulish Polytheism Community group on Facebook was created on August 30, 2011 as a networking platform for Gaulish Polytheistic Reconstructionists, to focus on the continued development of religion and spirituality within Senobessus, and to study and share the language, history, and culture of Ancient Gaul.

The purpose of Senobessus is the revival of the pre-Christian worldview and spiritual practices of the Gaulish peoples – the ancient Celtic peoples who inhabited and greatly influenced what would become the cultures and nations within central Europe. Senobessus aims to reconstruct Gaulish Polytheism within a modern context, while still respecting what we know about the worldview of the ancient Gaulish people.

Senobessus, or Gaulish Polytheistic Reconstructionism, is a Celtic Reconstructionist faith that focuses on Pre-Roman Gaulish Religion, and its revival into the modern age. Our faith emphasizes orthopraxy or "right actions" over orthodoxy or "right belief", and cultural relevance or influence over "racial purity" or elitism. We are open to all genders and sexual orientations, ethnic backgrounds, and national affiliations.

Before I go any further, I need to address the fifty-ton pink elephant in the living room. I don't see how a bunch of people of a particular culture, celebrating their heritage, is "elitism." I would like to see one of these "cultural apologists" knock on the door of one of the Sikh Temples and ask to join. The ultra-folkish, ancestral-worshiping Sikhs would get quite a kick out've that. I think it's pretty safe to say that they "may not join." It seems to be a phenomena, in the English-speaking world, for individuals to believe that "they can be anything!" Well, you can't be anything. ALL of us face rejection in our lives, and sometimes it's because we do not fit in. That's a basic FACT of life, and there's nothing wrong with it. You cannot be anything you want to be at any time you want to be it, based on your "whim of the moment," "current fad," or "fast value" of the day.

As far as the gay thing; given the types of problems and road blocks that we will face, "gays" would comparatively be a non-issue. The Gaulish spirituality/culture, as with other forms of European spirituality, was based primarily on the "family unit." Women, I believe, had extremely important leadership roles; probably more than in the Teutonic culture. Chiefly in the family, and in the realm of their tribal spirituality. In the area of spirituality, however, it would have been the more special women. In other words, I don't think just any woman can be an "Earth Mother" in the Wiccan sense. Then there's the Druidic element, which may have been predominantly males.

Getting back to choosing a name. Although I don't like this GPR-movement in it's present form; I still like the basic idea of it. Maybe we should run with it. Work within it. We live in a world where many people literally feel guilty for breathing, and are quite eager to give trillionaire international banking concerns a "world tax" to help ease their burden of guilt, so I don't have any problem purging them from any folk-movement that will eventually need to be splintered off. Incessant "guilt" is a Christian concept, not a pagan one, so I think that the universal Christian church is a good place for them. As far as a "Cernic Rite" or "Temple of Cern" name based on the chief Gaulish god; I suppose one could argue that we could just as well name it the "Sironic Rite" or the "Temple of Sirona," based on possibly the chief goddess of the Gauls (as least of the Cisalpine Gauls).

In conclusion, perhaps a landscape with a loose intellectual name "Gaulish Polytheist Reconstructionim," with the almost gratuitous "folkish" and "universalist" subsections, with name like "Temple of Cern" being given to its various local covens? As to whether it should lean more towards the Witches Sabbath or Druidism, I don't know. Since various spiritual traditions overlapped, this becomes a central issue. Personally, I tend to lean more towards the Witches Sabbath. That is the area, more than any other, which needs to be exorcised from the grip of political influence, any political influence. The Gaulish culture was strong in France (Gaul), the northern Italian peninsula, and much of the Iberian peninsula; but since Celtic peoples were present in every part of Europe, it leaves the door open. I just believe that, for example, a Cuban-American--who's also a European-American and a folkish-minded person--ought to feel at home in Gaulish neopaganism. Lastly, I would suggest an eight-pointed star as the chief symbol of this movement. It's perfect, with each point representative of each sabbat in the wheel of the year.

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Cernic Rite: Summer Solstice

Cernic Rite: Summer Solstice

Cernunnos, the Celto-Gallic god of the forest. Ironically, a nearby house featured in this video has a depiction of the Green Man on it. The Cernic tradition goes clear back into the ancient world. So far back that it predates the Norse gods in Europe. However, many of the old ways have mingled with Norse, Slavic, and Mediterranean paganism. The Green Man being one such example.

CERNUNNOS
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cernunnos

Cernunnos is the conventional name given in Celtic studies to depictions of the horned god of Celtic polytheism. The name itself is only attested once, on the 1st-century Pillar of the Boatmen, but depictions of a horned or antlered figure, often seated in a "lotus position" and often associated with animals and holding or wearing torcs, are known from other instances.

Nothing is known about the god from literary sources, and details about his name, his cult or his significance in Celtic religion are unknown. Speculative interpretations identify him as a god of nature or fertility.


SUMMER SOLSTICE
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summer_solstice

The summer solstice occurs exactly when the Earth's semi-axis in a given hemisphere is most inclined towards the sun, at its maximum tilt of 23° 26'. Though the summer solstice is an instant in time, the term is also colloquially used like Midsummer to refer to the day on which it occurs. Except in the polar regions (where daylight is continuous for many months), the day on which the summer solstice occurs is the day of the year with the longest period of daylight. The summer solstice occurs in June in the Northern Hemisphere north of the Tropic of Cancer (23°26'N) and in December in the Southern Hemisphere south of the Tropic of Capricorn (23°26'S). The Sun reaches its highest position in the sky on the day of the summer solstice. However, between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, the highest sun position does not occur at the summer solstice, since the sun reaches the zenith here and it does so at different times of the year depending on the latitude of the observer. Depending on the shift of the calendar, the summer solstice occurs some time between December 21 and December 22 each year in the Southern Hemisphere, and between June 20 and June 21 in the Northern Hemisphere.

Worldwide, interpretation of the event has varied among cultures, but most have held a recognition of sign of the fertility, involving holidays, festivals, gatherings, rituals or other celebrations around that time.

The word solstice derives from Latin sol (sun) and sistere (to stand still).


[Music: 'Cernunnos' by Kate West]

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I just wanted to add a little to this entry. First, most of the Cernic efforts will be posted here rather than the other blog. I don't want to saturate the PAL blog with paganism. Only that which applies to historical Padan Christian or pagan traditions, while most of the rest can be placed here.

I learned something when I filmed this. I hiked in the dead of night, and it was so dark that I had to wait for some morning daylight in order to even enter the wooded area that I wanted to film. If there is no moonlight, the woods are usually completely black. I learned that it is not safe, for anyone, to hike in a remote area at night. It's easy to laugh, but it's no joke out there. It's an entirely different world at night. I almost bumped into a racoon. Now if I had stepped on it's foot or something, I could have been seriously hurt; or how about stepping on a rattlesnake?

I was carrying a lot of equipment and couldn't manage my failing disposable flashlight very well. It's really only safe to hike at night with others, and with adequate lighting. Actually, it's not even a good idea to hike at anytime alone, unless it's within a safe distance from a road. Another issue that crossed my mind is that it's always a possibility that you could encounter another person, which by itself is all the reason you would need to avoid hiking at night.

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Cernic Rite video

This entry is in regards to the new Cernic Rite video on the Padanian-American League blog. We don't like to duplicate posts between blogs, and the video seemed more appropriate within the entire Gaulic concept, rather than only for Camunian heritage.

Because the Cernic tradition was such a big part of the Val Camonica, we always need to look at any move in this area. The video came out fairly well, with a great "Celtiberian" musical score entitled 'Lacrimae Lugus' by the Celto-Pagan Black Metal band the Crystalmoors from Cantabria, Spain. Lugus was an ancient Gallo-Celtic deity.

The video showed what was possible with some simple footage and a couple of simple props. It starts out with with some late-day footage of a wooded trail for two or three minutes, which was broken up with a couple of images of a real wild cat taken there. The fact that the cat was black with glowing eyes added to the video.

Next was some footage taken at almost twilight inside a dark heavily wooded walkway along a mountainside, which lasted a little over a minute. The lack of light gave it sort of a Black Forest effect. Actually it wasn't quite that dark, but it looked like it was from an old European horror film. The mountains in the distance weren't very visible due to the position of the sun and the dark overgrowth.

The third part, taken at twilight, was of some silvery Celtic-looking standing stones in a circle. The video shows the circle with the hills in the background, and the still visible sun just before dropping under the distant mountain. Totally unplanned, one single ray of sunbeam (at least from the camera perspective) pointed directly at the tallest stone, then the camera focuses in on a pendant of Cernunnos which was placed upon the top of that stone. That was a pleasant surprise.

The footage was then broken up by several striking images of the twilight landscape. After that, footage of tall trees against the dark twilight sky facing straight upwards, then spinning in a circle. It's easy to forget just how easy it is to get dizzy when a person spins in a circle like that. A slower spin would have done fine. This was followed by some footage of a walk through the tall trees which only came out marginally acceptable due to the lack of light, and thus the raw footage had to be cut down quite a bit.

Next some filming of the moon through the trees in a sideways direction while walking. Due to some fog and the lack of light, this wasn't as dramatic as hoped, and also had to be cut down. The footage was broken up by a few images, starting with a skunk. Only it's glowing eyes showed. There were a few flash images of the skunk, which were cut out. This was followed by a clear image of the moon through the trees.

What followed next was a scene of a flashlight in some dark woods which eventually illuminates a tree with a foot wide red Sun of the Alps symbol formed from red electrical tape. Those woods were so dark that the flashlight barely showed up, except when it was placed close to the tree trunk. The night, hills, trees, and foliage all blocked out any light. In other words, when the flashlight was turned off, there was almost 100% blackness. Sometimes, if there's some dense fog, the lights of the cities will illuminate the fog, which in turn illuminates the ground.

Following all that was a scene where the camera was coming out of the dark tunnel of brush into a grassy field, focusing and zeroing in on the moon. The tunnel effect didn't work due to the lack of light, but some good footage of the moon fighting its way through the clouds was obtained. Next were some images to brake up the footage a little. First was an image which was taken at the edge of the trail, back in civilization, of a white house cat. Only the eyes and some body outline showed up, which made the cat appear like an white owl. Actually there was much owl hooting along the trails, but it's very hard to get a picture of owls since they're rarely seen, so the ambiguous image was just left as "maybe an owl" for the viewer. Another image of the moon through the trees, and a more clear image of the Sun of the Alps PAL symbol on the tree, followed.

The video ends with the ending image of tree bark with a photo-shopped Sun of the Alps symbol and the words Padanian-American League on it. It finishes with about twenty-four seconds of the sound of night crickets, followed by about thirty-five seconds of sound from wind through the trees and a few occasional screeches from what were probably a few restless hawks perched in the trees. The video ends with one nice loud screech. Actually, the camera was rolling even though all you see is black.

Hopefully this was a fitting tribute to the Cernic tradition, which is often associated with the night forest. One can imagine, over literally thousands of years, life in the unspoiled Alpine forests. It should be noted that the Cernic tradition was part of the history of ancient Gaul, southern Germany/Switzerland/Austria, Cisalpine Gaul including into Tuscany where there was Celtic settlement, and surprisingly in a few parts of Scandinavia. Probably the most impressive and famous Cernic carvings is located on Gotland Island, which is a small island in the Baltic Sea. It would be interesting to look into Cernic influence in Iberia and the Slavic regions, and even down towards Greece. There were Celtic settlements in ancient Turkey. Apparently there was no Cernism in the British Iles.

Lastly, as mentioned, this Cernic tradition linked places like Val Camonica with Gotland Island. One item which deserves a little more study is the torc, which is depicted in the right hand of Cernunnos. Again, although usually associated with the Celts, the torc ties in with the heritage of all Cernic peoples. The famous Roman statue 'The Dying Gaul' depicts a dying Gaulic warrior, naked except for the torc around his neck.

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"Cernism" and the Camonica Valley

This entry is something of a continuance to the October 25, 2009 Padanian-American League blog entry entitled "Cernism: Finally giving a proper name to an old tradition." The subject of the Celtic pagan deity, known today mainly under the title of Cernunnos, can be a little bit confusing when we try to search for an origin. Although usually attributed as being born from Celtic/Gallic culture, there seems to be at least some overlap with the Germanic world. Also, to add to the confusion, as stated in the Wikipedia Cernunnos webpage: "The earliest known probable depiction of Cernunnos was found at Val Camonica in Italy, dating from the 4th century BC, while the best known depiction is on the Gundestrup cauldron found on Jutland, dating to the 1st century BC." However Wikipedia does clarify part of the issue, as it went on: "The Cauldron was likely to have been stolen by the Germanic Cimbri tribe or another tribe that inhabited Jutland as it originated from south east Europe." One of the best depictions of Cernunnos exists on Gotland Island near Sweden (see Wikipedia link above for a good image of it). Despite that, the tradition clearly is most identified with the Celts.
Although there was some later Celtic influence at times in the Camonica Valley, it does seem odd that the earliest depiction of Cernunnos is found there. That is, the earliest depiction anywhere in Europe. The ancient Camunni were not Celtic, but an Alpine tribe, with roots that go back many thousands of years. The roots of Celtic culture has been strongly linked to what is today the southern reaches of the German-speaking world. Could this spiritual tradition have been passed from the Camunni to the earliest Celtic tribes of the more northern Alpine region? That might seem like a stretch, until we consider that there was a distinct type of culture in the Camunian Valley that has been estimated as being as old as ten thousand years. Scholars seem to at least give a safe estimate at about eight thousand years, but still very old. The Hebrews only go back six thousand years!

The "Cernism" article was mainly to put out the idea that Cernunnos is basically the origin for what passes as modern "Witchcraft" or "Wicca." Wicca is eclectic and universalist, and is only very loosely tied to ancient European Witchcraft. In other words, to add Cernism to the lexicon of neo-paganism once and for all, and present it as an alternative for those who have been disappointed with the direction of Wicca.

The answer to the question of the true origin of the Cernic tradition may never be definitively satisfied. One thing is certain, Cisalpine Gaul, and more specifically the little ever-spiritual Camonica Valley, were a very early part of it. Also, it strongly defines the chief, pre-Roman, spiritual tradition of most of Western Europe.

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2-5-13 Addition: I wanted to add a small item from the news in the last week to one of the posts regarding the Cernic tradition... one that I thought was relevant to it. Leading up to Super Bowl XLVII, and also regarding professional athletes from other sports, a small degree of controversy surrounds the use of a performance-enhancing product called by some "deer antler spray." To quote the the UK's 'Daily Telegraph': "Manufacturers claim the product is made from the velvetlike tissue that covers the antlers of male deer..." (see also 'Does Deer Antler Spray Work?' from LiveScience.com). Although perhaps only in a superficial way, this concept ties into the perception of how the antlers of a stag were considered a symbol of male virility, strength, and courage in ancient European cultures. Cernunnos was a "stag god," and was depicted as a man with antlers.

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Pre-Roman Tribes of the Lombardia Region

This entry is based on three articles from the Padanian-American League blog:

The Celti and the Trophy of Augustus

Caesar Augustus' "Conquered Alpine Peoples" - Part 1

Caesar Augustus' "Conquered Alpine Peoples" - Part 2

These articles show the bigger picture of the pre-Roman Alpine region, but we wanted to just focus on the region of Lombardia (which wasn't a distinct region at that time).

Lets start with Brescia. In the Valle Camonica was the Camunni tribe, and just south of it, in the nearby Valle Trompia, was the Trumpilini tribe. Now those two tribes were listed FIRST in the Trophy of Augustus, as the most fierce resistors against the invading Romans (Trumpilini was number one). That alone is a tremendous statement regarding the fighting spirit of these two Italic Alpine tribes. Especially in light of the bigger picture, with the Romans going on to conquer the known world. They had to get past the Alpine peoples first.


From the Wikipedia entry: "Camunni

"The Camunni or ancient Camunians (Greek: Καμοῦνοι for Strabo or Καμούννιοι for Cassius Dio) were an Alpine people who inhabited the valley of the Ollius (modern Oglio), from the central chain of the Rhaetian Alps to the head of the Lacus Sebinus (modern Lago d'Iseo). This valley, which is still called the Val Camonica, is one of the most extensive on the Italian side of the Alps, being over 100 km in length. The actual inhabitants of Val Camonica are called Camunians (Italian: Camuni).

"According to Pliny, the Camunni were a Euganean tribe, while Strabo reckons them among the Rhaetians.

"The name of the Camunni appears among the Alpine tribes who were reduced to subjection by Roman emperor Augustus, after which the inhabitants of all these valleys were attached, as dependents, to the neighbouring towns of Gallia Transpadana ("finitimis attributi municipiis", Plin. iii. 20. s. 24; Strab. iv. p. 206; Dion Cass. liv. 20). At a later period, however, the Camunni, appear to have formed a separate community of their own, and we find mention in inscriptions of the "Res Publica Camunnorum". (Orell. Inscr. 652, 3789.)

"In the later division of the provinces, they came to be included in Regio X Venetia et Histria."

In the above link, make sure to see the amazing map, which shows the tribe territory of Brescia/Lombardia. What is now the Brescia province (and most of the rest of what is now the Orobic language region; East Lombardy), was then in ancient Venetia, and what is now considered Insubria (West Lombardy), was then in ancient Transpadane Gaul. It shows the tribes of the three mountain valleys of northern Brescia: Camunni, Trumilini, and Sabbini (all Italic tribes). To the south in lower Brescia, Cremona, and to the east through what is now the Verona province, was the ancient territory of the Cenomani, who were a Celtic tribe. The Cenomani founded the cities of Brescia (Brixia) and Verona. To the west is the territory of the Insubres, another Celtic tribe, who founded the city of Milano (Mediolanum). In the north central part of Lombardy was the territory of the Orobii, who were also Celtic.


From the Wikipedia entry: "Cenomani (Cisalpine Gaul)

The Cenomani (Greek: Κενομάνοι, Strabo, Ptol.; Γονομάνοι, Polyb.), was an ancient tribe of the Cisalpine Gauls, who occupied the tract north of the Padus (modern Po River), between the Insubres on the west and the Veneti on the east. Their territory appears to have extended from the river Addua (or perhaps the Ollius, the modern Oglio) to the Athesis (modern Adige). Whether these Cenomani are the same people as the Cenomani in Gallia Celtica encountered by Julius Caesar is a subject of debate.

"Both Polybius and Livy expressly mention them among the tribes of Gauls which had crossed the Alps within historical memory, and had expelled the Etruscans from the territory in which they established themselves and subsequently continued to occupy. (Pol. ii. 17; Liv. v. 35.) Livy relates that about 400 BCE, under the leadership of Elitovius (Livy V.35), a large number of the Cenomani crossed into Italy, drove the Etruscans southwards, and occupied their territory. The statement of Cato (in Pliny, Nat. Hist. III.130), that some of them settled near Massilia in the territory of the Volcae, may indicate the route taken by them. It is remarkable that they appear in history almost uniformly as friendly to the Romans, and refusing to take part with their kindred tribes against them. Thus, during the great Gaulish war in 225 BCE, when the Boii and Insubres took up arms against Rome, the Cenomani, as well as their neighbours the Veneti, concluded an alliance with the Roman Republic, and the two nations together furnished a force of 20,000 men, with which they threatened the frontier of the Insubres. (Pol. ii. 23, 24, 32; Strab. v. p. 216.) Even when Hannibal invaded Cisalpine Gaul they continued faithful to the Romans, and furnished a body of auxiliaries, who fought with them at the Battle of the Trebia. (Liv. xxi. 55.) After the close of the Second Punic War, however, they took part in the revolt of the Gauls under Hamilcar (200 BCE), and again a few years later joined their arms with those of the Insubres: but even then the defection seems to have been but partial, and after their defeat by the consul Gaius Cornelius Cethegus (197 BCE), they hastened to submit, and thenceforth continued faithful allies of the Romans. (Liv. xxxi. 10, xxxii. 30, xxxix. 3.) From this time they disappear from history, and became gradually merged in the condition of Roman subjects, until in 49 BCE they acquired, with the rest of the Transpadane Gauls, the full rights of Roman citizens. (Dion Cass. xli. 36.)

"The limits of the territory occupied by them are not very clearly defined. Strabo omits all notice of them in the geographical description of Gallia Cisalpina, and assigns their cities to the Insubres. Livy speaks of Brixia (modern Brescia) and Verona as the chief cities in their territory. Pliny assigns to them Cremona and Brixia: while Ptolemy gives them a much wider extent, comprising not only Bergamum (modern Bergamo) and Mantua, but Tridentum also, which was certainly a Rhaetian city. (Strab. v. p. 213; Liv. v. 35; Plin. iii. 19. s. 23; Ptol. iii. 1. § 31.) It is singular that Polybius, in one passage (ii. 32), appears to describe the river Clusius (modern Chiese), as separating them from the Insubres: but this is probably a mistake. The limits above assigned them, namely, the Addua on the west, the Athesis on the east, and the Padus on the south, may be regarded as approximately correct.

"The Alpine tribes of the Camunni and the Triumpilini, which bordered on them on the north, are expressly described by Pliny as of Euganean race, and were not therefore nationally connected with the Cenomani, though in his time at least united with them for administrative purposes."


From the Wikipedia entry: "Insubres

"The Insubres or Insubri were a population settled in Insubria, in what is now Lombardy. They were the founders of Milan (Mediolanum). Though Celtic at the time of Roman conquest, they were most likely the result of the fusion of pre-existing Ligurian and Italic population strata with Gaulish tribes who had come from what is now southern France.

"Together with the Boii, Lingones, Taurini, Gesati and other Gaulish groups, the Insubres were defeated in 224 or 225 BC by the Roman army led by consul Lucius Aemilius Papus at the Battle of Telamon. Two years later the Romans, backed by their Gaulish allies the Cenomani, reduced the only fortified place of the Insubres at Acerrae, and defeated them again at the Battle of Clastidium. After the defeat of the Gesati, they were compelled to accept the Roman occupation of Milan in 221 and forcible alliance with Rome, while the victors annexed much of their territory.

"During the invasion of Hannibal of 218-217 BC, the Insubres rebelled in support of the Carthaginians. They supported the Carthaginians again in 200 BC, this time under Hamilcar. After several other clashes, they definitively allied with Rome in 194, maintaining some autonomy for their capital. In 89 BC they obtained Latin citizenship and, in 49 BC, Roman citizenship.

"Romanization of the Insubres was probably quick, also due to the reported similarities of the Celtic and Latin languages; in a short span of time after the Roman conquest several literary figures emerged, like that of Caecilius Statius.

"Insubria and Insubric language are named after the Insubres."


The Cenomani betrayal of the Celto-Ligurian federation is perhaps a historical demerit, but the brave actions of the other tribes, in fighting what possibly was the most powerful army the world has ever seen, more than makes up for it.